Roman Britain
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History
Early contact
Main article: Caesar's invasions of Britain
Britain was not unknown to the Classical world. As early as the 4th century BC, the Greeks, Phoenicians and Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin.[1] The Greeks refer to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and describe them as being situated somewhere near the west coast of Europe.[2] The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. But it was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers even refusing to believe it existed at all.[3]
The first direct Roman contact came when the Roman general and future dictator, Julius Caesar, made two expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54 BC as an offshoot of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons had been helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition, more a reconnaissance than a full invasion, gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but, undermined by storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry, was unable to advance further. The expedition was a military failure, but was at least a political success. The Roman Senate declared a 20-day public holiday in Rome in honour of the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgian tribes on returning to the continent.[4]
In his second invasion, Caesar took with him a substantially larger force and proceeded to coerce or invite many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether the tribute agreed was paid by the Britons after Caesar's return to Gaul with his forces.[5]
Caesar had conquered no territory and had left behind no troops, but had established clients on the island and had brought Britain into Rome's sphere of political influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable,[6] and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claims that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could.[7] Likewise, archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain.[8] Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus and Augustus' own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees.[9] When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in AD 16, they were sent back by local rulers, telling tall tales of monsters.[10]
Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius.[11]
This policy was followed until AD 39 or 40, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and staged an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it had even left Gaul.[12] When Claudius successfully invaded in AD 43, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, this time Verica of the Atrebates.
[edit] Roman invasion
Main article: Roman conquest of Britain
The invasion force in AD 43 was led by Aulus Plautius.[13] It is not known how many Roman legions were sent; only one legion, the II Augusta, commanded by the future emperor Vespasian, is directly attested to have taken part.[14] The IX Hispana,[15] the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix)[16] are attested in 60/61 during the Boudican Revolt, and are likely to have been there since the initial invasion. However, the Roman Army was flexible, with units being used and moved whenever necessary, so this is not certain. Only the Legio IX Hispana is likely to have stayed there, as it is attested to being in residence at Eburacum (York) in AD 71 and on a building inscription there dated AD 108, before its eventual destruction fighting in the East, likely during the Bar Kochba Revolt.[17]
The invasion was delayed by a mutiny of the troops, who were eventually persuaded by an imperial freedman to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent, although some suggest that at least part of the invasion force landed on the south coast, in the Fishbourne area of West Sussex.[18]
The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni and their allies in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the Thames. One of the Catuvellaunian leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). The future emperor Vespasian subdued the southwest,[19] Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories,[20] and treaties were made with tribes outside the area under direct Roman control.
[edit] Roman rule is established
Further information: Romano-British culture


Roman province of Britannia in 125 AD, showing native tribes, cities, main roads and legions deployed
After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51 AD, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. However, the Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.[21]
In 60-61 AD, while Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was campaigning in Wales, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. Boudica was the widow of the recently-deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth legion that was sent to relieve it. Suetonius Paulinus rode to London, the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Suetonius regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness.[22] During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.[23]
There was further turmoil in 69 AD, the "year of four emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[24] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78 AD. With the XXth Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 AD at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in northern Scotland.[25] This was the high water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans retired to a more defensible line along the Forth-Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.
For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.
[edit] Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth-Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged, although others appear to have been abandoned. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100 AD, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to AD 90-110. These tablets provide vivid evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.
Around 105 AD, however, there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts of Alba: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site. There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. However, Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway-Tyne isthmus around this time.


Hadrian's Wall viewed from Vercovicium
A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign (117 AD): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120 AD, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the VIth Victrix legion with him from Lower Germany. This replaced the famous IXth Hispana legion, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the second century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.
In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161 AD) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth-Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 AD following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155-157 AD, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Cnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 AD it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antonius' undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time, however: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180 AD.
During the twenty year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danube provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.
In 175 AD a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180 AD Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Dio Cassius described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 AD he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus' strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian Prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.
The future emperor Pertinax was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control. However, a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192 AD.
[edit] Third century
The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the throne emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus' support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised however, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia—though it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.
Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195 AD, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Although Albinus came close to victory, Severus' reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus' sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment.
Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions; but these provided an ambitious man, whose loyalty to the emperor was weak, with a powerful base for rebellion. Deploying those legions elsewhere, however, would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.
The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus' absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 AD describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject - although the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old.
Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus' arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, however, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

An expedition led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in AD 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus, but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which (with Rome's power still ending at the Wall) clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. And almost immediately another northern tribe, the Maeatae, again went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.
As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Upper Britain and Lower Britain. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.
During the middle of the 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Except the intensification of the Frisian settlements on the North Sea coast (with the approbation of the Roman authorities to protect the area against the Caledonian raids), Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, although increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.
In the late 270s a half-Brythonic usurper named Bononus rebelled to avoid the repercussions of letting his fleet be burnt by barbarians at Cologne. He was quickly crushed by Probus, but soon afterwards an unnamed governor in Britannia also attempted an uprising. Irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians were sent across the Channel by Probus to put down the uprising, perhaps in 278 AD.
The last of the string of rebellions to affect Britannia was that of Carausius and his successor Allectus. Carausius was a naval commander, probably in the English Channel. He was accused of keeping pirate booty for himself, and his execution was ordered by the Emperor Maximian. In 286 AD he set himself up as emperor in Britain and northern Gaul and remained in power whilst Maximian dealt with uprisings elsewhere. In 288 an invasion failed to unseat the usurper. An uneasy peace ensued, during which Carausius issued coins proclaiming his legitimacy and inviting official recognition.
In 293 AD Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel's port at Boulogne and cutting it off from naval assistance. After the town fell, Constantius tackled Carausius' Frankish allies. Subsequently the usurper was murdered by his treasurer, Allectus. Allectus' brief reign was brought to an end when Julius Asclepiodotus landed near Southampton and defeated him in a land battle.[26]
Constantius arrived in London to receive the victory and chose to divide the province further, into four provinces (each with its own governor):
• Maxima Caesariensis (based on London), from Upper Britannia
• Britannia Prima, from Upper Britannia
• Flavia Caesariensis, from Lower Britannia
• Britannia Secunda, from Lower Britannia
In the same year, under the Tetrarchy reforms of the emperor Diocletian, Britannia became one of the four dioceses—governed by a vicarius—of the praetorian prefecture of Galliae ('the Gauls'), comprising the provinces of Gaul, Britannia, Germania and Hispania. This added, in effect, a fifth governor of Britannia. Thus, in place of one unchallenged military commander, the province now had five officers, each with command of only a small fraction of the garrison.
[edit] Fourth century
Constantius Chlorus returned in 306 AD, aiming to invade northern Britain. The province's defences had been rebuilt in the preceding years, and although his health was poor Constantius wished to penetrate into enemy territory. Little is known of his campaigns, and there is little archaeological evidence for them. From fragmentary historical sources it seems he reached the far north of Britain and won a great battle in early summer before returning south to York.
Constantius remained in Britain for the rest of the time he was part of the Tetrarchy, dying in York in July 306 AD. His son, Constantine I, was at his side at that moment and assumed his duties in Britannia. Unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus, he succeeded in using his base in Britannia as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne.
In the middle of the century, for a few years the province was loyal to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353 AD, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paul "Catena" to Britain to hunt down Magnentius' supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paul retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius physically attacked Paul with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.
As the 4th century progressed there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Irish in the west. A series of forts was already being built, starting around 280 AD, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when a general assault of Saxons, Irish and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate in 367 AD. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius with a string of military and civil reforms.
Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383 AD, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were struggling after the catastrophic Battle of Adrianople in 378. Around 396 there were increasing barbarian incursions into Britain, and an expedition - possibly led by Stilicho - brought naval action against the raiders. It seems peace was restored by 399, although it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; and indeed by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.
[edit] End of Roman rule
Main article: Roman departure from Britain


Roman Britain in 410.
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the fifth century. However, consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had formerly been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There were growing barbarian attacks, but these were focused on vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy, although many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the fifth century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. New buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the fifth and sixth centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the fourth century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, and problems with the payment of soldiers and officials. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, although it never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, although minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were no new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Pottery mass production probably ended a decade or two previously; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor probably adopted leather or wooden ones.
[edit] Sub-Roman Britain
Main article: Sub-Roman Britain
Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attack on all sides towards the end of the 4th century, and troops were too few to mount an effective defence. The army rebelled and, after elevating two disappointing usurpers, chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He soon crossed to Gaul with an army and was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration (although Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai). A later appeal for help by the British communities was rejected by the Emperor Honorius in 410. This apparent contradiction has been explained by EA Thompson as a peasant revolt against the landowning classes, with the latter group asking for Roman help; an uprising certainly occurred in Gaul at the time. With the higher levels of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and small warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still aspiring to Roman ideals and conventions. Laycock (Britannia the Failed State, 2008) has investigated this process of fragmentation and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods to the kingdoms that formed in the post-Roman period.
By tradition, the pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts and Irish, though archaeology has suggested some official settlement as landed mercenaries as early as the third century. Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may well have begun much earlier even than that. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic Roman auxiliaries being brought to Britain in the first and second centuries to support the legions. The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name). Similar orders were sent out in the 490s but met with no response. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the famous Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aëtius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446; another is the Battle of Dyrham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.
Most scholars reject the historicity of the later legends of King Arthur, which seem to be set in this period, but some such as John Morris see it as evidence behind which may lie a plausible grain of truth.
[edit] Themes
[edit] Trade and industry
Further information: Mining in Roman Britain


Development of mine
By the time of the Roman occupation, Britain's tin exports to the Mediterranean had been largely eclipsed by the more convenient supply from Hispania. Gold, tin, iron, lead, silver, jet, marble and pearls however were all exploited by the Romans in Britain along with more everyday commodities such as hunting dogs, animal skins, timber, wool and slaves. Foreign investment created a vigorous domestic market, and imports to Roman Britain were often of exotic continental items such as fine pottery such as Samian, olive oil, lavastone querns, fine glassware, wines, garum and fruit.
Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine was probably first worked by the Roman army from ca 75 AD, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for crushing and comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from ca 75 AD through to the first century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.
The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Although mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Doalucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.
Although Roman designs were most popular, rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Local pottery rarely attained the standards of the Gaulish industries although the Castor ware of the Nene Valley was able to withstand comparison with the imports. Most native pottery was unsophisticated however and intended only for local markets.
By the third century, Britain's economy was diverse and well-established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north. The design of Hadrian's Wall especially catered to the need for customs inspections of merchants' goods.
[edit] Provincial government
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.
To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus iuridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and in time of war probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.
Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections.
[edit] Provincial subdivisions
Britannia
43-early 3rd c.
Capital Camulodunum
(43-c.65),
then Londinium




Britannia Inferior,
Early 3rd c. - 293,
capital at Eboracum
Britannia Superior
Early 3rd c. - 293,
capital at Londinium




Flavia Caesariensis,
293-410,
capital Lindum
Britannia Secunda,
293-410,
capital Eboracum
Maxima Caesariensis,
293-410,
capital Londinium
Britannia Prima,
293-410,
capital Corinium

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coba Dalam Ilmu komputer, Sistem operasi atau dalam bahasa Inggris: operating system atau OS adalah perangkat lunak sistem yang bertugas untuk melakukan kontrol dan manajemen perangkat keras serta operasi-operasi dasar sistem, termasuk menjalankan software aplikasi seperti program-program pengolah kata dan browser web.
Secara umum, Sistem Operasi adalah software pada lapisan pertama yang ditaruh pada memori komputer pada saat komputer dinyalakan. Sedangkan software-software lainnya dijalankan setelah Sistem Operasi berjalan, dan Sistem Operasi akan melakukan layanan inti umum untuk software-software itu. Layanan inti umum tersebut seperti akses ke disk, manajemen memori, skeduling task, dan antar-muka user. Sehingga masing-masing software tidak perlu lagi melakukan tugas-tugas inti umum tersebut, karena dapat dilayani dan dilakukan oleh Sistem Operasi. Bagian kode yang melakukan tugas-tugas inti dan umum tersebut dinamakan dengan "kernel" suatu Sistem Operasi.
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Pendahuluan
Biasanya, istilah Sistem Operasi sering ditujukan kepada semua software yang masuk dalam satu paket dengan sistem komputer sebelum aplikasi-aplikasi software terinstall. Dalam Ilmu komputer, Sistem operasi atau dalam bahasa Inggris: operating system atau OS adalah perangkat lunak sistem yang bertugas untuk melakukan kontrol dan manajemen perangkat keras serta operasi-operasi dasar sistem, termasuk menjalankan software aplikasi seperti program-program pengolah kata dan browser web.
Secara umum, Sistem Operasi adalah software pada lapisan pertama yang ditempatkan pada memori komputer pada saat komputer dinyalakan. Sedangkan software-software lainnya dijalankan setelah Sistem Operasi berjalan, dan Sistem Operasi akan melakukan layanan inti umum untuk software-software itu. Layanan inti umum tersebut seperti akses ke disk, manajemen memori, skeduling task, dan antar-muka user. Sehingga masing-masing software tidak perlu lagi melakukan tugas-tugas inti umum tersebut, karena dapat dilayani dan dilakukan oleh Sistem Operasi. Bagian kode yang melakukan tugas-tugas inti dan umum tersebut dinamakan dengan "kernel" suatu Sistem Operasi
Kalau sistem komputer terbagi dalam lapisan-lapisan, maka Sistem Operasi adalah penghubung antara lapisan hardware dan lapisan software. Lebih jauh daripada itu, Sistem Operasi melakukan semua tugas-tugas penting dalam komputer, dan menjamin aplikasi-aplikasi yang berbeda dapat berjalan secara bersamaan dengan lancar. Sistem Operasi menjamin aplikasi software lainnya dapat menggunakan memori, melakukan input dan output terhadap peralatan lain, dan memiliki akses kepada sistem file. Apabila beberapa aplikasi berjalan secara bersamaan, maka Sistem Operasi mengatur skedule yang tepat, sehingga sedapat mungkin semua proses yang berjalan mendapatkan waktu yang cukup untuk menggunakan prosesor (CPU) serta tidak saling mengganggu.

Dalam banyak kasus, Sistem Operasi menyediakan suatu pustaka dari fungsi-fungsi standar, dimana aplikasi lain dapat memanggil fungsi-fungsi itu, sehingga dalam setiap pembuatan program baru, tidak perlu membuat fungsi-fungsi tersebut dari awal.

Sistem Operasi secara umum terdiri dari beberapa bagian:
1. Mekanisme Boot, yaitu meletakkan kernel ke dalam memory
2. Kernel, yaitu inti dari sebuah Sistem Operasi
3. Command Interpreter atau shell, yang bertugas membaca input dari pengguna
4. Pustaka-pustaka, yaitu yang menyediakan kumpulan fungsi dasar dan standar yang dapat dipanggil oleh aplikasi lain
5. Driver untuk berinteraksi dengan hardware eksternal, sekaligus untuk mengontrol mereka.

Sebagian Sistem Operasi hanya mengizinkan satu aplikasi saja yang berjalan pada satu waktu (misalnya DOS), tetapi sebagian besar Sistem Operasi baru mengizinkan beberapa aplikasi berjalan secara simultan pada waktu yang bersamaan. Sistem Operasi seperti ini disebut sebagai Multi-tasking Operating System (misalnya keluarga sistem operasi UNIX). Beberapa Sistem Operasi berukuran sangat besar dan kompleks, serta inputnya tergantung kepada input pengguna, sedangkan Sistem Operasi lainnya sangat kecil dan dibuat dengan asumsi bekerja tanpa intervensi manusia sama sekali. Tipe yang pertama sering disebut sebagai Desktop OS, sedangkan tipe kedua adalah Real-Time OS

Sebagai contoh, yang dimaksud sistem operasi itu antara lain adalah Windows, Linux, Free BSD, Solaris, palm, symbian, dan sebagainya.
Layanan inti umum
Seiring dengan berkembangnya Sistem Operasi, semakin banyak lagi layanan yang menjadi layanan inti umum. Kini, sebuah OS mungkin perlu menyediakan layanan network dan koneksitas internet, yang dulunya tidak menjadi layanan inti umum. Sistem Operasi juga perlu untuk menjaga kerusakan sistem komputer dari gangguan program perusak yang berasal dari komputer lainnya, seperti virus. Daftar layanan inti umum akan terus bertambah.

Program saling berkomunikasi antara satu dengan lainnya dengan Antarmuka Pemrograman Aplikasi, Application Programming Interface atau disingkat dengan API. Dengan API inilah program aplikasi dapat berkomunikasi dengan Sistem Operasi. Sebagaimana manusia berkomunikasi dengan komputer melalui Antarmuka User, program juga berkomunikasi dengan program lainnya melalui API.

Walaupun demikian API sebuah komputer tidaklah berpengaruh sepenuhnya pada program-program yang dijalankan diatas platform operasi tersebut. Contohnya bila program yang dibuat untuk windows 3.1 bila dijalankan pada windows 95 dan generasi setelahnya akan terlihat perbedaan yang mencolok antara window program tersebut dengan program yang lain.
Sistem Operasi saat ini
Sistem operasi-sistem operasi utama yang digunakan komputer sistem umum (termasuk PC, komputer personal) terbagi menjadi 3 kelompok besar:
1. Keluarga Microsoft Windows - yang antara lain terdiri dari Windows Desktop Environment (versi 1.x hingga versi 3.x), Windows 9x (Windows 95, 98, dan Windows ME), dan Windows NT (Windows NT 3.x, Windows NT 4.0, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Vista, Windows 7 (Seven) yang dirilis pada tahun 2009, dan Windows Orient yang akan dirilis pada tahun 2014)).
2. Keluarga Unix yang menggunakan antarmuka sistem operasi POSIX, seperti SCO UNIX, keluarga BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution), GNU/Linux, MacOS/X (berbasis kernel BSD yang dimodifikasi, dan dikenal dengan nama Darwin) dan GNU/Hurd.
3. Mac OS, adalah sistem operasi untuk komputer keluaran Apple yang biasa disebut Mac atau Macintosh. Sistem operasi yang terbaru adalah Mac OS X versi 10.4 (Tiger). Awal tahun 2007 direncanakan peluncuran versi 10.5 (Leopard).
Sedangkan komputer Mainframe, dan Super komputer menggunakan banyak sekali sistem operasi yang berbeda-beda, umumnya merupakan turunan dari sistem operasi UNIX yang dikembangkan oleh vendor seperti IBM AIX, HP/UX, dll.
Proses
Prosesor mengeksekusi program-program komputer. Prosesor adalah sebuah chip dalam sistem komputer yang menjalankan instruksi-instruksi program komputer. Dalam setiap detiknya prosesor dapat menjalankan jutaan instruksi.
Program adalah sederetan instruksi yang diberikan kepada suatu komputer. Sedangkan proses adalah suatu bagian dari program yang berada pada status tertentu dalam rangkaian eksekusinya. Di dalam bahasan Sistem Operasi, kita lebih sering membahas proses dibandingkan dengan program. Pada Sistem Operasi modern, pada satu saat tidak seluruh program dimuat dalam memori, tetapi hanya satu bagian saja dari program tersebut. Sedangkan bagian lain dari program tersebut tetap beristirahat di media penyimpan disk. Hanya pada saat dibutuhkan saja, bagian dari program tersebut dimuat di memory dan dieksekusi oleh prosesor. Hal ini sangat menghemat pemakaian memori.
Beberapa sistem hanya menjalankan satu proses tunggal dalam satu waktu, sedangkan yang lainnya menjalankan multi-proses dalam satu waktu. Padahal sebagian besar sistem komputer hanya memiliki satu prosesor, dan sebuah prosesor hanya dapat menjalankan satu instruksi dalam satu waktu. Maka bagaimana sebuah sistem prosesor tunggal dapat menjalankan multi-proses? Sesungguhnya pada granularity yang sangat kecil, prosesor hanya menjalankan satu proses dalam satu waktu, kemudian secara cepat ia berpindah menjalankan proses lainnya, dan seterusnya. Sehingga bagi penglihatan dan perasaan pengguna manusia, seakan-akan prosesor menjalankan beberapa proses secara bersamaan.
Setiap proses dalam sebuah sistem operasi mendapatkan sebuah PCB (Process Control Block) yang memuat informasi tentang proses tersebut, yaitu: sebuah tanda pengenal proses (Process ID) yang unik dan menjadi nomor identitas, status proses, prioritas eksekusi proses dan informasi lokasi proses dalam memori. Prioritas proses merupakan suatu nilai atau besaran yang menunjukkan seberapa sering proses harus dijalankan oleh prosesor. Proses yang memiliki prioritas lebih tinggi, akan dijalankan lebih sering atau dieksekusi lebih dulu dibandingkan dengan proses yang berprioritas lebih rendah. Suatu sistem operasi dapat saja menentukan semua proses dengan prioritas yang sama, sehingga setiap proses memiliki kesempatan yang sama. Suatu sistem operasi dapat juga merubah nilai prioritas proses tertentu, agar proses tersebut akan dapat memiliki kesempatan lebih besar pada eksekusi berikutnya (misalnya: pada proses yang sudah sangat terlalu lama menunggu eksekusi, sistem operasi menaikkan nilai prioritasnya).
[sunting] Status Proses
Jenis status yang mungkin dapat disematkan pada suatu proses pada setiap sistem operasi dapat berbeda-beda. Tetapi paling tidak ada 3 macam status yang umum, yaitu:
1. Ready, yaitu status dimana proses siap untuk dieksekusi pada giliran berikutnya
2. Running, yaitu status dimana saat ini proses sedang dieksekusi oleh prosesor
3. Blocked, yaitu status dimana proses tidak dapat dijalankan pada s

Blog Untuk Cari Uang Di Internet - Saatnya Kerja Di Rumah
cara menghasilkan uang lewat internet
Siapa bilang cari uang harus selalu dengan kerja kantoran atau menjadi pegawai, kerja di rumah juga bisa menghasilkan pendapatan jika Anda punya komputer dan akses internet!

Blog nyaris menjadi senjata utama bagi internet marketer untuk cari uang di internet. Karena saking banyaknya para pencari informasi datang setiap hari, sementara konten-konten blog senantiasa di-update terus menerus, internet menjadi kaya informasi. Banyak orang mendarat di sebuah halaman blog ketika melakukan pencarian. Karena kemudahan serta kekuatan sebuah blog, maka sekarang saatnya Anda mulai blogging dan menghasilkan income online sekalipun ini akan menjadi kegiatan sampingan.

Pelajari Bagaimana Anda Bisa Menghasilkan Uang Melimpah Dari Blog


Seperti yang dapat Anda lihat, sejak blog ini pertama dibuat sampai sekarang masih mendatangkan pengunjung. Artinya bahwa setiap hari akan ada orang yang mampir ke sini untuk mendapat informasi gratis. Dan tidak ada maksud lain dari penyajian informasi di blog ini selain untuk menghasilkan keuntungan, baik untuk saya sebagai penulis, maupun untuk Anda sebagai pembaca.
Bagaimana Blog Itu Dapat Menghasilkan Uang?
Berikut gambaran umum bagaimana saya menjadikan blog ini untuk cari uang di internet tanpa harus bekerja rutin setiap hari:

* Saya menulis artikel, mengoptimisasi halaman, dan melakukan berbagai trik marketing!
* Anda mencari informasi menggunakan Google.com, dan menemukan blog ini, kemudian mengambil informasi itu untuk keperluan Anda.


Begitulah terjadi setiap hari. Saya tidak perlu melakukan promosi lagi karena usaha keras yang saya lakukan bertahun-tahun lalu sekarang sudah membuahkan hasil. Saya berterimakasih kepada Google yang setiap hari mengantarkan pengunjung ke blog ini dan menjadikannya sebagai sumber pendapatan sekalipun saya tidak menjual apa-apa.

Namun harus disadari bahwa untuk mendapat posisi teratas di pencarian Google bukan perkara yang mudah. Dibutuhkan pengetahuan dan kerja ekstra untuk memperoleh hasil yang baik. Anda bisa saja menulis sesuka hati dan tetap tidak pernah muncul di halaman pencarian Google. Maka jika itu terjadi, blog Anda sama sekali tidak menguntungkan.

Jika saya perlu mempelajarinya bertahun-tahun dengan berbagai percobaan serta proses belajar yang lama, maka Anda dapat menyingkat waktu jika Anda memiliki panduan dan strategi yang tepat! Maka sangat direkomendasikan untuk Anda yang benar-benar berhasrat untuk menciptakan penghasilan online dari blog untuk cari uang di internet!

Tidak semudah membalik telapak tangan jika Anda meraba dengan segala bentuk usaha coba-coba, namun akan menjadi sangat mudah jika Anda memegang panduan tepat untuk memulai ini sebagai bisnis online yang menguntungkan.

Pelajari Bagaimana Anda Bisa Menghasilkan Uang Melimpah Dari Blog
pada 03:44
Label: Cara Mudah Cari Uang, cari uang di internet

Dampak dan manfaat Internet bagi perkembangan Pendidikan
November 21st, 2008
DAMPAK DAN MANFAAT INTERNET BAGI PERKEMBANGAN PENDIDIKAN
Internet merupakan produk teknologi informasi yang mampu berkembang pesat melewati batas negara dan berbagai sendi kehidupan manusia. Dunia pendidikan adalah satu bidang yang memanfaatkan internet secara luas untuk kepentingan peningkatan kualitas suatu institusi pendidikan. Pendidikan memegang peranan yang sangat penting dalam kemajuan suatu bangsa dan negara. Tanpa pendidikan yang baik, sulit untuk mencapai dan meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat, baik secara lahir maupun batin. Banyak faktor yang dapat mempengaruhi dan menentukan kemajuan dan perkembangan pendidikan. Salah satu faktor yang dapat memengaruhi perkembangan dunia pendidikan, yaitu kehadiran internet. Internet atau international networking adalah media komunikasi jarak jauh dan informasi dengan menggunakan satelit.
Internet dapat dikatakan sebagai perpustakaan maya (virtual library) yang mengandung jutaan informasi tentang berbagai hal, salah satunya termasuk data dan informasi tentang pendidikan. Internet dapat dijadikan sebagai salah satu sumber belajar alternatif bagi kalangan akademis setelah perpustakaan konvensional di lembaga pendidikan tinggi.
Selain itu manfaat yang ditimbulkan dari kehadiran internet bagi pendidikan antara lain :
1. Mempercepat dan mempermudah alih ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi.
2. Proses pembelajaran lebih menarik. Melalui internet pembelajaran tidak monoton dan jenuh karena dalam internet ada hal-hal baru yang variatif dan inovatif.
3. Mendorong siswa untuk lebih aktif mencari ilmu pengetahuan dan informasi.
4. Mempermudah penjelasan konsep. Selama ini dalam materi atau bahan pelajaran disampaikan melalui metode ceramah. Dengan adanya internet, guru bisa menyampaikan konsep atau materi secara audiovisual. Pelajaran lebih nyata dan jelas, sehingga mempermudah pemahaman siswa. Hal ini dapat menghindari kebingungan pada diri siswa saat proses pembelajaran berlangsung.
5. Pembelajaran lebih konseptual dan up to date (aktual).
6. Mempermudah dan mempercepat administrasi pendidikan. Pelaksanaan proses pendidikan harus diusahakan lebih praktis dan cepat. Guru tidak terlalu disibukkan urusan administrasi yang berbelit-belit, sehingga konsentrasi lebih tertuju pada proses pembelajaran di kelas. Misalnya, dalam membuat persiapan mengajar, pengolahan nilai, dan menyebarluaskan nilai ulangan atau ujian, bisa menggunakan fasilitas komputer (internet). Dengan demikian, internet dapat memperbaiki dan memperlancar administrasi pendidikan.
7. Sebagai perpustakaan elektronik.
8. Mempercepat dan mempermudah komunikasi edukatif antara guru dengan siswa.
Akhirnya, internet diharapkan dapat membantu mempercepat perkembangan pendidikan. Pendidikan lebih maju dan berkualitas. Pada gilirannya pendidikan dapat membantu mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa. Bangsa yang cerdas akan membantu meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat.
Selain dari dampak positif, internet juga berdampak negatif bagi para pelajar. Mencoba untuk melontarkan sebuah wacana dan berbagai fakta tentang sebuah persoalan baru di kota-kota besar yang juga tidak bisa dipandang sebelah mata. Walaupun masih berupa gejala awal, namun apabila tidak segera diatasi tentu akan berkembang menjadi “penyakit kronis” yang makin sulit untuk diatasi. saat ini telah terjadi pergeseran profil pengguna internet dan juga pergeseran orientasi pemanfaatannya. Pengguna internet terbesar saat ini adalah para pelajar SLTP diikuti oleh pelajar SLTA dan kalangan mahasiswa justru menempati urutan ketiga (kecuali di warnet yang berdekatan dengan kampus). Ada gejala menarik yaitu mulai maraknya pelajar SD bermain internet dan sudah “berani” nongol diwarung internet. Para orang tua tentu saat ini harus “rela” merogoh kocek lebih banyak untuk memenuhi keinginan anak-anaknya untuk bermain internet baik dirumah ataupun di warnet. Harapan orang tua tentulah ingin agar si-anak tidak ketinggalan jaman dan dengan ber-main internet si-anak bisa bertambah pintar. Namun benarkah demikian ?
Makin meratanya pengguna internet disatu sisi memang sangat menggembirakan, namun pergeseran orientasi penggunaan internet sudah sangat memprihatinkan. Dalam pengamatanku, bahwa Para pelajar SLTP, SLTA dan SD sebagian besar (>75%) menggunakan internet “hanya” untuk bermain game dan chatting. Dan rata-rata mereka rela menghabiskan waktu 3-5 jam/ hari dengan mengeluarkan uang Rp.7000 – Rp.30.000/hari untuk bermain internet. Dan anehnya kegiatan tersebut didukung oleh para orang tua. Pergeseran orientasi penggunaan internet tersebut belum ditangkap oleh para orang tua, sehingga setiap anaknya meminta uang berapapun untuk bermain internet selalu diberikan. Padahal yang terjadi adalah tidak ada unsur pendidikan apapun yang bisa didapatkan dari bermain game dan chatting. Memang tidak semua pelajar hanya menggunakan internet untuk bermain game dan chatting. Memang diantara mereka juga menggunakan internet untuk sarana mencari pengetahuan, namun yang melakukan hal itu jumlahnya tidaklah banyak. Game dan chatting bisa membawa effect “kecanduan”. Dan apabila sudah kecanduan tentu effect sampingnya akan membuat anak menjadi malas belajar, malas mengaji dan setiap ada kesempatan selalu berusaha untuk bermain game dan chatting. Dampak negatif bermain game hampir sama dengan dampak permainan Play Station dimana seseorang yang sudah kecanduan akan betah seharian bermain dan bahkan lupa makan, lupa minum dan lupa kalau hari esok masih ada. Sedangkan effect bermain game mungkin bisa digambarkan dengan permainan interkom yang marak sekitar 20 tahun yang lalu. Dimana hampir semua orang “lupa daratan” dan setiap hari kerjanya hanya bermain intercom (jika sudah memegang mic maka orang cenderung akan malas berangkat sekolah, malas berangkat kerja, malas membatu orang tua, malas untuk mengaji malas makan, malas minum dan sebagainya). Begitu juga dengan chatting.. para pelajar yang melakukan kegiatan ini menganggap waktu 5 jam sama dengan 10 menit. Dan mereka cenderung memanfaatkan chatting untuk sekedar ngobrol kesana-kemari dengan teman kencannya di internet dan bahkan tidak menutup kemungkinan juga mengarah kepada pembicaraan yang porno. Effect permainan game dan chatting ini justru lebih berbahaya dari kekhawatiran kita sekitar 5 tahun lalu tentang maraknya situs-situs porno. Karena berdasarkan pengamatan, ternyata situs porno hanya berefek pada euforia dan dalam waktu singkat mereka sudah akan bosan. Namun effect game dan chatting adalah “Effect Candu” yang bisa membuat penggunanya menjadi ketagihan dan ini yang sangat berbahaya bagi dunia pendidikan kita. Beberapa kejadian di Indonesia menunjukan ada kasus perkosaan oleh teman chatting, penipuan oleh teman chatting.
Sebagai bagian dari Teknologi Informasi, internet memang ibarat pisau bermata dua. Disatu sisi, teknologi ini bisa bermanfaat apabila digunakan untuk melakukan hal-hal yang baik dan bermanfaat, seperti: mencari bahan-bahan pelajaran sekolah, diskusi mata pelajaran, mencari program beasiswa, konsultasi dengan pakar, belajar jarak jauh, dan mencari metode-metode pengajaran berbasis multimedia. Namun sayangnya penggunaan internet justru malah bergeser kepada hal-hal yang negatif dan ini harus menjadi perhatian seluruh komponen masyarakat. Karena bagaimanapun kita tetap membutuhkan internet sebagai sarana informasi dan komunikasi yang bersifat global, namun disisi lain kitapun juga harus siap untuk melakukan antisipasi untuk mengatasi dampak-dampak negatifnya. Dan inilah persoalan bersama kita.
Mumpung semua ini masih berbentuk gejala, alangkah baiknya pemerintah, DPRD, dunia pendidikan, pengamat “IT” dan para pengamat sosial kemasyarakatan duduk bersama untuk membahas dan mencari solusi untuk mengatasinya. “Virus” yang membuat mereka “kecanduan” dan “virus” yang bisa menjebak mereka kedalam sebuah permasalahan. Yang paling penting adalah bagaimana kita mengemas teknologi ini agar mempunyai muatan pendidikan namun tetap menarik untuk dikunjungi oleh para pelajar sebagai pengguna internet (netter) mayoritas pada saat ini. Namun tetap semua akan dikembalikan lagi kepada para netter, karena dampak positif maupun negatif dari internet bergantung dari niat pemakainya.
Sumber :
www.google.com
http://dunia.pelajar-islam.or.id
www.klik-galamedia.com
Di edit ulang oleh :
Nama : Kenny Nur Fitri
NPM : 10505103
Kelas : 4 PA 04

Macam-macam Tanaman Obat; Manfaat Kencur
APRIL 17, 2009 • POSTED IN ILMU UMUM, INFORMASI, PENDIDIKAN SD, TUMBUHAN & OBAT-OBATAN
Manfaat Tanaman Kencur
Kencur (Kaempferia galanga, Linn.)
Sinonim : Familia : Zingiberaceae
Uraian :
Kencur (Kaempferia galanga) termasuk suku tumbuhan Zingiberaceae dan digolongkan sebagai tanaman jenis empon-empon yang mempunyai daging buah paling lunak dan tidak berserat.
Kencur merupakan terna kecil yang tumbuh subur di daerah dataran rendah atau pegunungan yang tanahnya gembur dan tidak terlalu banyak air. Rimpang kencur mempunyai aroma yang spesifik. Daging buah kencur berwarna putih dan kulit luarnya berwarna coklat. Jumlah helaian daun kencur tidak lebih dari 2-3 lembar dengan susunan berhadapan. Bunganya tersusun setengah duduk dengan mahkota bunga berjumlah antara 4 sampai 12 buah, bibir bunga berwara lembayung dengan warna putih lebih dominan. Kencur tumbuh dan berkembang pada musim tertentu, yaitu pada musim penghujan. Kencur dapat ditanam dalam pot atau di kebun yang cukup sinar matahari, tidak terlalu basah dan di tempat terbuka.
Nama Lokal :
Kencur (Indonesia, Jawa), Cikur (Sunda), Ceuko (Aceh); Kencor (Madura), Cekuh (Bali), Kencur, Sukung (Minahasa); Asauli, sauleh, soul, umpa (Ambon), Cekir (Sumba);
Penyakit Yang Dapat Diobati :
Radang Lambung, Radang anak telinga, Influenza pada bayi; Masuk angin, Sakit Kepala, Batuk, Menghilangkan darah kotor; Diare, Memperlancar haid, Mata Pegal, keseleo, lelah;
Pemanfaatan :
1. Radang Lambung Bahan: 2 rimpang kencur sebesar ibu jari. Cara membuat: kencur dikuliti sampai bersih dan dikunyah; Cara menggunakan: ditelan airnya, ampasnya dibuang, kemudian minum 1 gelas air putih, dan diulangi sampai sembuh. 2. Radang Anak Telinga Bahan: 2 rimpang kencur sebesar ibu jari dan ½ biji buah pala. Cara membuat: kedua bahan tersebut ditumbuk halus dan diberi 2 sendok air hangat; Cara menggunakan: dioleskan/dibobokkan di seputar hidung. 3. Influenza pada bayi Bahan: 1 rimpang kencur sebesar ibu jari dan 2 lembar daun kemukus (lada berekor/ Cubeb) Cara membuat : kedua bahan tersebut ditumbuk halus, kemudian ditambah beberapa sendok air hangat. Cara menggunakan: dioleskan/dibobokkan di seputar hidung. 4. Masuk Angin Bahan: 1 rimpang kencur sebesar ibu jari dan garam secukupnya. Cara membuat: kencur dikuliti bersih. Cara menggunakannya: kencur dimakan dengan garam secukupnya, kemudian minum 1 gelas air putih.Dapat dilakukan 2 kali sehari. 5. Sakit Kepala Bahan: 2-3 lembar daun kencur. Cara membuat: daun kencur ditumbuk sampai halus. Cara menggunakannya: dioleskan (sebagai kompres/pilis) pada dahi. 6. Batuk a. Bahan: 1 rimpang kencur sebesar ibu jari dan garam secukupnya. Cara membuat : kencur diparut, kemudian ditambah 1 cangkir air hangat, diperas dan disaring. Cara menggunakan : diminum dengan ditambah garam secukupnya. b. Bahan : 1 rimpang kencur sebesar ibu jari. Cara membuat : kencur dikuliti sampai bersih dan dikunyah; Cara menggunakan : airnya ditelan, ampasnya dibuang. Dilakukan setiap pagi secara rutin. 7. Diare a. Bahan : 2 rimpang kencur sebesar ibu jari dan garam secukupnya. Cara membuat : kencur diparut, kemudian ditambah 1 cangkir air hangat, diperas dan disaring. Cara menggunakan : diolsekan pada perut sebagai bedak. b. Bahan : 2 rimpang kencur sebesar ibu jari dan garam secukupnya. Cara membuat : kencur diparut, kemudian ditambah garam secukupnya. Cara menggunakan : dioleskan pada perut sebagai bedak. 8. Menghilangkan Darah Kotor Bahan : 4 rimpang kencur sebesar ibu jari, 2 lembar daun trengguli, 2 biji cengkeh kering, adas pulawaras secukupnya. Cara membuat : semua bahan tersebut direbus bersama dengan 1 liter air sampai mendidih kemudian disaring. Cara menggunakan : diminum 2 kali sehari secara teratur. 9. Memperlancar haid Bahan : 2 rimpang kencur sebesar ibu jari, 1 lembar daun trengguli, 1 biji buah cengkeh tua, adas pulawaras secukupnya. Cara membuat : kencur dicincang, kemudian dicampur dengan bahan lain dan direbus bersama dengan 3 gelas air sampai mendidih hingga tinggal 2 gelas, kemudian disaring. Cara menggunakan : diminum sekali sehari 2 cangkir. 10. Mata Pegal Bahan : 1 potong rimpang Cara membuat : kencur dibelah menjadi 2 bagian. Cara menggunakan : permukaan yang masih basah dipakai untuk menggosok pelupuk mata. 11. Keseleo Bahan : 1 rimpang kencur dan beras yang sudah direndam air. Cara membuat : kedua bahan tersebut dipipis dan air secukupnya. Cara menggunakan : dioleskan/digosokan pada bagian yang keseleo sebagai bedak. 12. Menghilangkan Lelah. Bahan : 1 rimpang besar kencur, 2 sendok beras digoreng tanpa minyak (sangan) dan 1 biji cabai merah. Cara membuat : semua bahan tersebut direbus bersama dengan 2 gelas air sampai mendidih hingga tinggal 1 gelas, kemudian disaring. Cara menggunakan : diminum sekaligus dan diulangi sampai sembuh. Untuk orang pria dapat ditambah dengan 1 potong lengkuas dan tepung lada secukupnya. 13. M
Komposisi :
KANDUNGAN KIMIA : Rimpang Kencur mengandung pati (4,14 %), mineral (13,73 %), dan minyak atsiri (0,02 %) berupa sineol, asam metil kanil dan penta dekaan, asam cinnamic, ethyl aster, asam sinamic, borneol, kamphene, paraeumarin, asam anisic, alkaloid dan gom.

CERPEN : Tulisan Surat Berdarah.....
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Malam ini hujan tak hentinya mengguyur bumi,membuat suasana malam menangis di kala mimpi2 kecerahan tlah pudar tak brbinar sdkitpun,pada sat itu petir menggelegar dimana2 ,mnyayat2 kilat dengan cahayanya yg trlalu janggal pada mlm ini,bunyi malam semakin tak menentu,membuat siapa saja tak ingin lagi menikmatinya,desa itu terlihat kecil dan sangat sintru,desa yg di kelilingi oleh 4 kuburan tua,tepat di tengah2 kuburan bisa di sebut desa itu berada,desa yg penghuninya sebagian besar mnganut agama sesat,yg setiap purnama muncul,mereka harus memberikan sesajen pada "petang keliwon purnomo" yg berbentuk kepala dan jari tangan seorang ibu muda yg baru saja melahirkan..itu adlah kwajiban mereka,agar "dia "tak muncul untuk mengmbil korban nya satu2 dr desa itu,agar kejadian2 dulu tak pernah muncul lagi,di mana warga desa membunuh beramai2 membunuh seorang wanita muda ,anak dari seorang tukang sihir yg konon sangat membuat warga desa takut,yg sebenarnya wanita muda itu tak ada sangkutan apa2,sampai saat ini arwahnya masih tak bisa menerima perbuatan warga desa yg seenaknya menhabisi dia tanpa belas kasihan,sampai kakinya patah,tulang2nya patah,dan kepalanya di hancurkan,sudah banyak org2 desa yg hilang,kerasukan,atau MATI mengenaskan di lokasi pekuburan,tak ada listrik atau pnerangan di desa itu.,siang malam tak ada bedanya,sunyi,sepi sllau mnjadi kawan akrab suasana desa tersebut,penduduknya sangat tertutup pada kalangan umum,ritual2nya telah membuat kawasan itu di sebut sebagai "panggon duso ruah",
-------
Jam dinding telah menunjukkan pukul 00.01,bunyi hujan rintik masih terdengar seirama dengan bunyi gesekkan pohon bambu yg seakan memberi tahu jiwa2 yg mati untuk bangkit lalu datang mengambil korban dari setiap yg mengetahui tentang cerita ini,tak ada satupun ,suasana semakin dingin,angin malam mengantarkan pesan darah dari apa yg di sebut dendam....,
tiba2 di balik pepohonan yg mendesah,terlihat seorang sosok wanita,berpakaian putih,ia tertawa keras,menunjukkan pandangannya yg kosong ,sosok itu mulai melangkah mendekat ,sangat cepat sekali menhilang,menghilang bersamaan dengan angin malam yg menghembus,seolah membawa sosok itu ,lolongan anjing malam terdengar mengiris hati,sosok itu datang kembali,bersembunyi di balik pandangan kita,takada yg pernah bisa menyadari kedatangannya,
"aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaarrrrrrggggghhhhhhhhhhhhhht"suara jeritan keras membuyarkan suasana malam menjadi semakin mencekam di lingkup desa ini,warga berlarian menuju sumber suara itu,
yg ternyata
"ada apa kakek!!!"
"aduh nek,aduh sakit,tadi kan kakek mau nulis surat,eh pulpennya kena tangan kakek,berdarah deh nih kena tulisan kakek,nih nek,auwhhh,sakit bgd nek"
"ahh kakek mah ngaget2in aja,suara kakek keras banget tau"kata nenek itu sembari mencubit pipi kakek itu,sampek kakek terbatuk2.
"waahh parah nih,gak lucu nih pak,kita rame2 ,di kirain apa,di kira ada korban lagi yg di bunuh ama setan itu,kan asik kita ada tontonan,ada sensasi"kata seekor warga laki2 setengah tua itu
"tau nih kakek2 lebay,plis deh ,haloow"kata seorang nenek2 seumuran dengan kakek itu,warga pun buyar meninggalkan TKP dengan wajah kecewa
luka kakek pun di balut dengan hansaplas.,,"makanya kek,hati2,dan suaranya pelan2 aja"
"iya nek,kakek kan kturunan rok n rol"kata kakek sembari make kcmata itemnya
kakek dan nenek itu pun tidur kembali,menyulam mimpi indah dan menunggu fajar bangun bersama dunia
dari jauh terlihat sosok putih tadi.......
yg trnyata Bu.Haji mujib,istrinya pak Haji Mujib yg menag togel,saking girang nya ampe mlamun dan ketawa keras bgt .plus lari2 ke sana kemari(kyk heli.wkwkwkk)
sampai saat inipun misteri panggon duso ruah itu belum tersiingkap,

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Aku langsung jatuh cinta pada pandangan pertama saat guru itu memperkenalkan diri di depan kelas sebagai guru Matematika baru kami. Usianya masih 25 tahun dan perbedaan 9 tahun itu bagiku bukan masalah yang besar jika seseorang memang telah tertelan cinta. Cinta itu membutakan segalanya kan?
Setiap hari aku selalu memperhatikannya, berusaha menarik perhatiannya. Kami sering berbincang hal yang tidak ada hubungannya sama sekali dengan pelajaran. Terkadang meskipun bersama murid-murid lain, kami pergi nonton atau karoke. Dia begitu baik dan ramah dan rasa cintaku padanya semakin besar.
"Aku suka Pak Zera," kataku pada teman masa kecilku, Ren yang datang ke rumahku untuk menyontek PR-PR ku.
Ren langsung menjatuhkan pulpen ditangannya. Ditatapnya aku dengan wajah kaget, "Pak Zera? Serius?"
Aku mengangguk.
Ren memegang bahuku lalu mengguncangnya, "Dia itu udah nikah Ka! Kamu sadar gak?"
"Aku tahu kok!" Gerutuku.
Ren hanya memandangku dengan tatapan curiga, "pokoknya jangan macem-macem," Katanya berusaha menasihatiku.

Esoknya aku menjalani sekolahku seperti biasa. Saat itu aku pulang yang pulang terlambat karena membaca buku di perpustakaan melihat Pak Zera yang sedang merokok di taman kecil belakang sekolah, aku mendekatinya.
"Pak!" Aku berusaha mengagetkannya dari belakang.
"Rika," Pak Zera langsung menjatuhkan rokoknya ke tanah dan menginjaknya. "Ada apa?"
Aku duduk di samping pak Zera, kutatap wajahnya sebentar lalu keputusanku telah bulat, "Aku suka bapa," Ungkapku.
Angin berhembus pelan di taman kecil belakang sekolah yang jarang didatangi ini. Pak Zera hanya terdiam memandangku, sama seperti saat Ren mendengarnya.
Pak Zera mengelus-elus kepalaku, "Apaan sih kamu ini, Ka, jangan buat bapa GR."
"Aku serius!"
Pak Zera terdiam lalu tersenyum, "Kau sudah tau kan bapa sudah punya istri, tidak mungkin," Katanya pelan.
Kini aku yang terdiam, aku sudah tau jawaban apa yang akan dia jawab jika aku mengatakannya.
"Ayo kita pulang, rumah kita searah sampai jalan perempatan di depan kan?," ajaknya.
Aku hanya mengangguk.
Kami berjalan dengan canggung di sepanjang jalan, Pak Zera tidak berbicara apapun padaku, aku juga hanya terdiam. Pikiranku penuh, penuh oleh sesuatu yang tidak aku tahu.
Sebelum sampai ke perempatan tempat kami berpisah, aku memberhentikan langkahku.
"Ada apa?" Pak Zera juga ikut terhenti.
"Aku, sungguh-sungguh suka bapa," kata-kataku mengalir. "Aku tidak akan mengecewakan bapa."
"Rika,"
"Tolong jadilah pacarku! Meskipun sembunyi-sembunyi, meskipun tidak ada yang tahu, aku ingin bersama bapa..." Kataku dengan tegas sambil memandang lurus pada orang yang kusukai itu.
Pak Zera memandangku, "Baiklah jika itu maumu," Jawabanya.
Sepanjang jalan pulang, kebahagiaanku tidak dapat terbendung, aku tidak bisa tidur memikirkannya, semalaman kami SMS-an tak henti, meskipun membicarakan hal tidak penting aku tetap senang.
Saat hari minggu kami pergi keluar bersama, hanya untuk makan siang. Meskipun kami harus pergi ke tempat yang sedikit jauh, aku tidak keberatan. Kami benar-benar seperti orang yang berpacaran, membicakan kesukaan masing-masing, Pak Zera menyuruhku memanggilnya hanya Zera saja. Tidak ada kebahagiaan yang melebihi ini bagiku.
"Kau? Dengan Pak Zera?" Ren tersentak.
"sttt... Jangan keras-keras Ren!" Aku berusaha menutup mulut Ren.
Ren memegang kepalanya, "Apa kau sadar apa yang kau lakukan Rika?"
"Aku tau... tapi aku tetap menyukainya..."
"Hubungan ini tidak benar Ka, kamu harus putus!"
Aku hanya berusaha tidak menanggapi saran Ren. Aku tidak peduli apa pendapat orang lain saat ini. Aku hanya ingin menikmatinya.
'Tililit Tililit'
Handphone Pak Zera berbunyi saat kami sedang makan di salah satu kafe di pusat pembelanjaan. Pembicaraan kami terhenti.
Pak Zera langsung menanggapi telepon itu. Dari caranya bicara, dari setiap senyum yang terbentuk di bibirnya saat berbicara aku tau itu pasti istrinya. Aku sedikit cemburu.
Setelah 3 bulan kami pacaran, rasa cintaku sama sekali tidak berubah. Aku malah makin menyukainya.
Hari itu saat aku menunggunya untuk pergi bersama, Pak Zera membatalkannya dengan mendadak, dia bilang istrinya sakit. Meskipun aku kesal, aku harus sadar bahwa aku hanyalah selingkuhannya, tidak mungkin menyaingi istrinya. Aku hanya menahan perasaan ini.
"Hentikan itu Rika, kau hanya akan semakin sakit jika terus bersamanya," Ren kembali menasihatiku.
Kini aku sedikit memikirkan kata-kata Ren, tapi aku juga tidak ingin menerimanya begitu saja.
"Aku harus bagaimana?" Tanyaku pelan.
"Terima orang yang mencintaimu jangan mengejar orang yang kau cintai," Ren memandangku. "Aku menyukaimu sejak dulu." Lanjutnya.
Aku tersenyum, tapi untuk saat ini aku masih tidak bisa. Ada masalah yang harus kuselesaikan.
"Ada apa Rika?" Pak Zera berlari mendekatiku sambil kelelahan karena berlari. "Ada hal penting apa sampai ingin bertemu mendadak?" Tanyanya.
"Tolong, cium aku," Pintaku.
"Hah?" Pak Zera terkejut.
"Tolong hancurkan rasa cintaku pada bapa."
Pak Zera terdiam sejenak, ia mendekatiku, lalu menciumku dengan erat, menumpahkan segala perasaan di hatiku. Aku begitu menyukainya, begitu ingin memilikinya. Aku tidak bisa berbuat apapun.
"Kau sudah puas sekarang?"
"Maaf, aku begitu naif ingin memiliki bapa. Aku begitu menyukai bapa sampai-sampai membuatku gila, bolehkah aku melupakannya?"
Pak Zera tersenyum, "Jika itu pilihanmu," Katanya.
"Aku tidak menyesal bertemu bapa, dan menjalin hubungan dengan bapa meskipun hanya sebentar, meskipun sembunyi-sembunyi," Aku berusaha tersenyum.
Aku menundukan kepalaku, berusaha tidak memandangnya lalu beranjak pergi. Ren telah menungguku tak jauh dari taman tempat aku dan Pak Zera bertemu. Ren menggenggam tanganku dan kami pulang bersama. Meskipun aku belum bisa menerima Ren, seiring berjalannya waktu, perasaanku pasti akan berubah.

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